Are microfibres a mega problem?
I sat down with Cordelia Roberts, recent Marine Biology and Oceanography graduate from Plymouth University, to talk about her remarkable research on plastic microfibres in the ocean. The topic of her study is very timely and she is aiming to publish her results in a high ranking journal.
What are microfibres?
“Microfibres are a fibrous division of microplastics, less than 5mm in size. Every time you put a wash on, more than 1900 microfibres per garment can released into the wastewater.”
What clothes produce the most microfibres?
“Depends on what the garment is made of. If it is made up of cotton fibres that go into the environment, it won’t be so bad, because they will degrade eventually over time. But cheap clothes are the worst culprits because they’re not made as well so the fibres come loose really easily. If possible, you should buy long lasting good quality…
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Plastic for Dinner
A Material World.
Clothing is everywhere. In our wardrobes, in our favourite shops and on our bodies right now.
Each and every garment and piece of clothing we have ever owned or will own, is made up of materials and fabrics. These fabrics can either be chemically treated synthetic fabrics or natural and organic fabrics. Though it is up to us to decide which ones we consume.
If we take a look at the label in our clothing we are guaranteed to read the words: ‘polyester’ ‘acrylic’ ‘nylon’ ‘acetate’ ‘rayon.’ That’s because they are the cheap synthetic fabrics brands opt for to satisfy their fast fashion business models.
Fast fashion is notorious for using synthetic, chemically treated fabrics as it’s a way for them to mass produce for lower costs at a quicker rate. And we buy
It is important for us to identify the different properties of fiber blends like polyester/cotton as they have significant impacts on the end use of fibers as well as the environment around us.
A good way to start off is with the renowned polyester. It is among the most popular fabric options for fashion is polyester. It’s in the majority of our clothing, like yoga pants, shirts and underwear.
But what is polyester? Contrado breaks it down…
We know that it is a fabric, and that is has certain qualities, which makes it a great choice for clothing. There is a slight stigma when it comes to fashion, as this is a man ade fabric, and not a natural choice such as silk, cotton, or wool. But even though it is not natural, surely it must have its positive points?
What is polyester and where did it come from?
Polyester is a generalised term for any fabric or textile, which is made using polyester yarns or fibres. It is a shortened name for a synthetic, man-made polymer, which, as a specific material, is most commonly referred to as a type called polyethylene terephthalate (PET). It is made by mixing ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid. That all sounds extremely scientific, but basically, polyester is a kind of plastic.
First invented in 1941 by British chemists John Rex Whinfield and James Tennant Dickson, and becoming increasingly popular in the 1970’s, thanks to the way it was advertised as “a miracle fibre that can be worn for 68 days straight without ironing, and still look presentable,” this fabric has always had some controversy surrounding it. Thanks to those loud, shiny and…shall we say slightly plastic looking suits from the 70’s, polyester became known as a cheap and uncomfortable fabric. However, it has come a long way baby since the days of Saturday Night Fever and the Brady Bunch!
The 1970’s were the height of the infamous polyester suit
When made into polyester fabric, it can be used to create clothing, furnishings, textiles and more. If you love your clothes, you are probably already aware that if you check their labels, you can see what they are made from. If a natural fabric is mixed with polyester, then you will see the percentages of each on the label.
Some characteristics of polyester fabric:
- Polyester is very durable and is resistant to many chemicals
- This is a popular fabric in the fashion industry, as it is resistant to shrining and stretching. It is also resistant to wrinkling and abrasions
- The fibres used to create Polyester are very strong yet lightweight
- The fibres are easily dyed
- It retains its shape very well
- Polyester fabric is easy to look after and it can be washed and dried at home
- It is a quick drying fabric, so a popular choice for outdoors clothing
Why choose polyester?
It is such a popular choice for apparel because polyester fibres are thermoplastic, or heat-sensitive. This means that fabrics, which are 100% polyester, can be given permanent pleats and decorative shapes and patterns can be laser-cut into them. They are also highly stain-resistant, so great for cleaning.
You might notice that when a garment is 100% polyester, that is it prone to static build up. This is a nightmare when it comes to ensuring your hair looks good, and you might find yourself being able to give people static shocks – which, although harmless, can be pretty annoying! To eliminate this issue, polyester is often blended with more stable fibres, such as cotton. This is then known as polycotton and it embodies the benefits of both fabrics; strong, durable, wrinkle resistant and far more breathable than 100% polyester.
Polyester clothing tends to be slippery and almost silky to touch and the fibres can be woven or knitted to create the fabric, although knitted maximises its flexibility. It is a naturally bright fibre and can be modified easily for different uses.
A close up view of polyester fabric
The popular uses for polyester:
- Fashion
- Sportswear
- Fleeces
- Coats and anoraks
- Bedding such as sheets, duvet covers and sleeping bags
- Footwear
- Fillings for duvets (due to its insulating properties)
- Sewing threads
- Soft furnishings and upholstery
- Textiles
- Luggage and other bags
Industrial polyester fibres are also used in things like conveyor belt fabrics, seat belts, plastic reinforcements and more.
The disadvantages of using polyester?
Some people love to only wear or use natural fabrics and yarns, such as cotton, cashmere, silk, wool etc. The benefits to these are they are generally breathable, hypoallergenic, and durable. They can also be more expensive than manmade fibres and need more care in regards to washing and drying.
The main issue regarding synthetic fabrics, such as polyester, is that they don’t breathe. Some find, when wearing it, that they can feel sweaty or have a feeling of humidity, which can be uncomfortable. This is because the moisture absorption of polyester is very low, compared to natural fabrics like cotton. However, modern manufacturing is now starting to create more moisture-wicking polyesters, which are great for work out and leisurewear.
People with very sensitive skin might find that they get a small reaction to wearing synthetic fabrics, however, this is usually not as common when it is a blended fabric.
On its own, it is highly flammable, so care needs to be taken, especially if wearing or using 100% polyester near an open flame.
As polyester is made from plastic, there is the question as to whether it is bad for the environment. True, it does come from an unsustainable source, however, plastic bottles are actually recycled into polyester fabric, which is pretty amazing, but, on the downside, plastic is not compostable, which means it doesn’t break down well in soil.
How polyester is made
So, what’s the bottom line?
It is undeniable that polyester fabric has a huge variety of beneficial uses, in a wide variety of sectors. As with any synthetic material, reactions can occur, but these are vastly limited, especially when polyester is blended with other fibres, such as cotton. Adverse reactions to fabrics and textiles (even natural ones) are always a possibility, but overall, the use of polyester can be extremely beneficial and useful.
Polyester has a lot of stigma, due to the old-fashioned polyester, which was super popular in the 1970’s, but fell from grace thanks to the uncomfortable double-knit polyester fabric. However, modern polyester has come on in leaps and bounds and is now a higher-grade fibre. Technological advances have dramatically improved the feel, drape and look of polyester, so it blends right in with more natural and expensive fabrics. As with all synthetics, it will remain, to an extent, unbreathable, so for anyone who experiences hot flushes, excess body heat or lives in a humid environment, polyester might not be the best fabric option for you.
Modern polyesters can feel and look as beautiful as real silk and wool, but it is all about ensuring you opt for a high-grade version or the right blend. A lot of high end brands use polyester in their collections, mainly to increase durability, ease of care and exciting effects.
It is all about being savvy when it comes to choosing your fabric. Remember, not all polyesters are created equal. Do your research, check labels, and always try on and there is no reason you and polyester can’t be friends.
Slow Fashion Formative
Formative Assessment 1: Slow Fashion Evaluative Essay
Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of organic cotton in the production of slow fashion
Aims:
- To define the terms ‘slow fashion’ ‘organic cotton,’ ‘genetically modified cotton’
- To identify why the use of organic cotton is a better, more sustainable alternative to using genetically modified cotton in the manufacturing process
The term ‘slow fashion’ was first coined by activist Kate Fletcher. She defines slow fashion as a “socially conscious movement” shifting the mindsets of consumers from “quantity to quality” (Fletcher, 2007). The fundamental purpose of the movement is to therefore encourage consumers to spend “more on high quality items less often” (Fletcher, 2008). The term ‘slow’ can be compared with the slow food movement founded by activist Carlo Petrini in 1986 (Petrini, 2001). Both movements work to protect the integrity of clothing and food by providing sustainable solutions.
Muthu (2017) identifies that the fashion industry is currently “one of the largest consumers of natural resources in the world.” This makes it important for retail brands to recognise sustainability issues involved in the manufacturing process of their products (Muthu, 2017). In order to avoid these issues, Fletcher (2017) argues businesses should follow a more holistic approach. This involves producing “truly sustainable and socially responsible products.” This also involves making their supply chains transparent as well as implementing a “sustainable agenda” throughout their business models (Muthu, 2017). A sustainable action brands may undertake could involve using organic cotton instead of genetically modified cotton.
Cotton
Cotton is the staple fibre used in clothing manufacturing and occupies 50% of the global fibre requirement today (Myers and Stolton, 1999). The seeds within cotton are genetically modified
for pest resistance and this involves many issues involving human rights and environmental effects. In order to better these issues, cotton must therefore be produced organically.
Organic Cotton
This is because organic cotton is produced and certified to organic agricultural standards. It is grown grown using methods and materials that have a low impact on the environment (organic cotton.com, 2018). Many slow fashion brands use organic cotton because the manufacturing process sustains the health of soils, ecosystems and people by using natural processes rather than artificial inputs. Its farming process prohibits the use of toxic chemicals or GMOs (genetically modified organisms). Instead, it combines tradition, innovation and science to benefit the shared environment and promote a good quality of life for all involved.
Advantages
Eyhorn (2007) identifies that a major advantage of ‘organic farming’ is that it uses a ‘holistic’ system that manages agro-ecosystems in a sustainable manner. This is because it aims to tackle issues involving social justice and environmental issues by saving sources such as soil, water and biodiversity (Eyhorn, 2007). Unlike genetically modified cotton, it is farmed without the use of synthetic chemicals such as pesticides and fertilizers (Rieple and Singh, 2010). As this produces clothing that is more natural and chemical-free, it is therefore the most eco-friendly ethos and approach (Chouinard, 2016). By virtue of this, farmers are increasingly adopting more organic, ecologically sound and socially sustainable methods of production (ibid). Rather than the use of agrochemicals, artificial fertilizers and other toxic-persistent chemicals, their organic agricultural methods rely upon crop rotation and the use of natural enemies such as ladybirds to suppress harmful insects (Chouinard, 2016). This therefore follows ecological processes and promotes biodiversity. Producing organic cotton also encourages and promotes fair relationships and a higher quality of life for all people involved throughout the production and manufacturing process.
Using organic cotton also satisfies the shift in consumer expectations. Eyhorn (2005) identifies that there has been a rise in consumers expecting more of retailers to produce organic clothing with less pesticide residues.
The following illustration shows the farming of organic cotton farming in India. The preceding image shows the differences between the organic seeds and NGO seeds.
Disadvantages
Despite the positive uses of organic cotton there is however, some disadvantages. Organic agriculture requires considerably more land to produce the same amount of yield as genetically modified cotton. This results in widespread deforestation, greenhouse gas emissions and biodiversity loss (Trewavas 2001).
Another disadvantage of organic farming is the greater output of labour and costs needed to produce organic cotton in comparison to conventional or GM cotton. According to Olgun and Adanacioglu (2012), unit costs of organic cotton were calculated at $1.04 kg, whereas those of conventional production were $0.85 kg.
Due to the removal of herbicides and chemical fertilizers, organic farming relies solitary on the labour of farmers. The increased labour requirements, especially during the periods of peak labour demands, can often not be met by household resources and thus require additional cash expenditure to hire workers (Bray et al. 2002; Bolwig et al. 2009). This is particularly problematic in areas where availability of agricultural labour is limited due to emigration of workmen or due to movement of labour to non-agricultural sectors (Bachmann 2011). As smaller farms are typically run by females, women are those ‘most affected’ by the labour demand (Bachmann 2012).
Most organic farmers are from developing countries and require access to international markets to sell cotton. A difficulty of this is that it requires the farmers to undergo a costly certification process. Farmers then develop a dependence on the international market and this could potentially increase their vulnerability. There is often ‘substantial delays’ before farmers receive the full payments. (Eyhorn, 2007) To avoid this, farmers are forced to then sell their produce to lower-paying conventional markets to make a quick profit.
Conclusion
Despite the negative effects of organic cotton, there are considerably more positive outcomes of farming cotton organically. Not only does organic cotton seek to build a biologically diverse agricultural system, it aids to replenish and maintain soil fertility (Chouinard, 2016).
Organic cotton is majorly beneficial to slow fashion as it does not exploit natural and human resources to expedite manufacturing speed (Fletcher, 2017). The sustainable nature of organic cotton involves a slow production and consumption process that provides garments with longer lifespans. This slower production cycle enables the environment to regenerate and allows communities to coexist in a healthier way (Cataldi et al, 2010).
Overall, using organic cotton to manufacture clothing is the most efficient way of producing “truly sustainable and socially responsible products” (Fletcher, 2017).
References
Adanacioglu, H. and A. Oglun., (2012) Evaluatıon of the efficiency of organic cotton farmers: a case study from Turkey. Bulg. J. Agric. Sci., 18: 418-428
Aboutorganiccotton.org. (2017) Organic Cotton Farming System [online] Available from: http://aboutorganiccotton.org/organic-farming-system/ [Accessed 11th February 2018]
Bachmann, F. (2011). Potential and limitations of organic and fair trade cotton for improving livelihoods of smallholders: evidence from Central Asia. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems FirstView Article: 1-10
Bachmann, F. (2012) Potential and limitations of organic and fair-trade cotton for improving livelihoods of smallholders: evidence from Central Asia. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems. Cambridge University Press, 27(2), pp. 138–147
Bolwig, S., et al. (2009). The economics of smallholder organic contract farming in tropical Africa. World Development 37(6): 1094-1104
Bray, D. B., et al. (2002). Social dimensions of organic coffee production in Mexico: lessons for eco-labeling initiatives. Society & Natural Resources 15(5): 429- 446.
Chouinard, Y. (2016) Let My People Go Surfing; The Education of a Reluctant Businessman, New York: Penguin Books
Eyhorn, F. (2007). Organic farming for sustainable livelihoods in developing countries?. Zürich: VDF Hochschulverlag.
Fletcher, K. (2007) Slow fashion. The Ecologist, 37, 61.
Fletcher, K. (2008) Sustainable Fashion and Textiles: Design Journeys. Earthscan, London, UK.
Fletcher, K. (2010) Slow fashion: an invitation for systems change. Fashion Practice, 2, 259–266.
Fletcher, K. and Grose, L. (2012). Fashion & Sustainability. London: Laurence King, pp.125-129.
Muthu, S. (2017). Textiles and Clothing Sustainability. Singapore: Springer.
Myers, D. and Stolton, S. (1999). Organic cotton. London: Intermediate Technology Publications.
Organic cotton – Agronomic Practice. [online] Organiccotton.org. Available at: https://www.organiccotton.org/oc/Organic-cotton/Agronomic-practice/Agronomic-practice.php [Accessed 10 Feb. 2018].
Petrini, C. (2001). Slow food. New York: Columbia University Press.
Rieple, A. and Singh, R. (2010). A value chain analysis of the organic cotton industry: The case of UK retailers and Indian suppliers. Ecological Economics, 69(11), pp.2292-2302.
Trewavas, A. (2001). Urban myths of organic farming. Nature 410: 409-410.
What is Organic Cotton? | Global Organic Textile Standards (GOTS) | Organic Cotton 101 | Organic Cotton Processing. [online] Available at: https://organiccottonplus.com/pages/learning-center [Accessed 13 Feb. 2018].
Useful Resources
https://www.greenfashionweek.org/sustainability/fast-fashion-vs-slow-fashion/
https://www.trustedclothes.com
https://www.trustedclothes.com/blog/category/ethical/
http://www.peopletree.co.uk/about-us/mission
anna thong 